Faced with the settlement of immigrant populations which has accompanied new modes of expression regarding citizenship and identity, various European States have opted for different integration strategies. As varied as they are, these models of incorporation are ill at ease to assert references of identity which are vectors in the weakening of national States.

Moreover, although immigration in Europe dates back to a long time, there is nevertheless a certain diversity, and ancient countries of travel such as Italy, Spain, Portugal or Greece have today become host countries, confronted by populations with whom they have little or no historical or cultural link. They are also confronted with the new face of migrants: women, lone children, those who have had their asylum rights rejected, young graduates, intellectuals, technicians etc. At the same time, the implementation by these host States of restrictive, dissuasive or even repressive policies has had several counter effects, the most significant of which is the increase of undocumented immigrants.

It is often the new countries of immigration that have urgently put regulatory mechanisms into place, with the hope of progressively deflating the 'mattress' of clandestine immigrants: Italy (1986, 1990, 1995, 1998), Spain (1991, 1996, 2000), Portugal (1993, 1996), Greece (1997). But other European countries have also made use of such policies: France (1982, 1998), Belgium (2000), even though illegal immigration has at times been taboo (Germany).

The citizenship which results from such immigration is a plural citizenship, which is also new to the extent where it contributes to the enrichment of classical citizenship with new forms of collective action, new actors, new solidarity which have all led to individual autonomy and emancipation.